Communications of the ACM

come conversant in privacy’s various definitions and forms.

Technology enables the collection, monitoring, and exchange of personal information quickly, inexpensively, and often without the knowledge of the people affected. Computing professionals should only use personal data for legitimate ends and without violating the rights of individuals and groups. This requires taking precautions to prevent unauthorized data collection, ensuring the accuracy of data, and protecting it from unauthorized access and accidental disclosure. Computing professionals should establish transparent policies and procedures that allow individuals to give informed consent to automatic data collection, review their personal data, correct in-accuracies, and, where appropriate, remove data.

Only the minimum amount of personal information necessary should be collected in a system. The retention and disposal periods for that information should be clearly defined, enforced, and communicated to data subjects. Personal information gathered for a specific purpose should not be used for other purposes without the person’s consent. Computing professionals should take special care for privacy when data collections are merged. Individuals or groups may be readily identifiable when several data collections are merged, even though those individuals or groups are not identifiable in any one of those collections in isolation.

1. 7 Honor confidentiality.

Computing professionals should protect confidentiality unless required to do otherwise by a bona fide requirement of law or by another principle of the Code.

User data observed during the normal duties of system operation and maintenance should be treated with strict confidentiality, except in cases where it is evidence of the violation of law, of organizational regulations, or of the Code. In these cases, the nature or contents of that information should not be disclosed except to appropriate authorities, and a computing professional should consider thoughtfully whether such disclosures are consistent with the Code.

2. PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES.

A computing professional should...

2. 1 Strive to achieve high quality in both the process and products of professional work.

Computing professionals should insist on high quality work from themselves and from colleagues. This includes respecting the dignity of employers, colleagues, clients, users, and anyone else affected either directly or indirectly by the work. Computing professionals have an obligation to keep the client or employer properly informed about progress toward completing the work. Professionals should be cognizant of the serious negative consequences affecting any stakeholder that may result from poor quality work and should resist any inducements to neglect this responsibility.

2. 2 Maintain high standards of professional competence, conduct, and ethical practice.

High quality computing depends on individuals and teams who take personal and group responsibility for acquiring and maintaining professional competence. Professional competence starts with technical knowledge and with awareness of the social context in which the work may be deployed. Professional competence also requires skill in reflective analysis and in recognizing and navigating ethical challenges. Upgrading necessary skills should be ongoing and should include independent study, conferences, seminars, and other informal or formal education. Professional organizations and employers should encourage and facilitate those activities.

2. 3 Know, respect, and apply existing rules pertaining to professional work. “Rules” here includes regional, national, and international laws and regulations, as well as any policies and procedures of the organizations to which the professional belongs. Computing professionals must obey these rules unless there is a compelling ethical justification to do otherwise. Rules that are judged unethical should be challenged. A rule may be unethical when it has an inadequate moral basis, it is superseded by another rule, or it