pretty horribly wrong. But afterward? The unpleasantness fades and the fond memories remain, perhaps to intensify, and even get amplified beyond reality.

Psychologists who study natural memories are quite familiar with these results. People sometimes fondly remember events that never happened (and strenuously insist that they did happen, despite the evidence). In one experiment people recalled seeing Bugs Bunny at Disney World despite the fact that he is not a Disney character and could not be seen there. As the authors of this study said, “To know that a memory is reconstructed and not necessarily a veridical representation does not make it any less meaningful or enjoyable at the time the person is remembering the event [4].”

to demonstrate various features they stumble, flail away for a while, apologize, and give up. So what? These are all minor inconveniences in a delightful experience. People love these products. They would buy them again, recommend them to their friends, eagerly purchase the next versions? Some people even save the boxes their devices came in, tell stories about their love for them, and take great pride in ownership.

experience, which includes the negative event. And of course my fondness may reflect the fact that I am an observer and storyteller, so every experience, whether positive or negative, adds to my collection, often useful at unknown times in the future (for example, suddenly recalling it while writing this article). Would I want to go back to Spain? Yes. Would I want that exact sequence of events to be repeated? Of course not. But the disagreement between the two of us reflects real disagreements among people. Generalizations about human behavior should always be viewed with caution.

[4] Braun-La Tour, K. A., M. S. La Tour, J. E. Pickrell, and E. F. Loftus,. “How and When Advertising Can Influence Memory for Consumer Experience.” Journal of Advertising 33, no. 4 (2004): 7-25. <https://webfiles.uci. edu/eloftus/Braun LaTourPickLoftus JofAd04.pdf>

Although the studies have primarily looked at events that are anticipated as being positive, I presume similar psychological mechanisms would apply to negative events, such as dental surgery, a colonoscopy, or other unpleasant experiences.

Those of us in the design profession can learn a lot from these observations. Do people hate the lines at a Disney theme park? Absolutely. Would they go back? Most people would. Disney does its best to provide delightful, memorable experiences, the key words being “memorable” and “delightful.” Do we really get frustrated when our iPhone or iPod crash-es, when we can’t remember how to turn off the iPod, when we discover we can’t change the battery, when the case scratches? People brag to me about how easy these devices are to use, but when I ask them

In my own life I have experienced this phenomenon. I remember a vacation when my wife and I drove from central Spain to France. Along the way we stopped at a lovely store and purchased a picnic lunch, but after driving into the countryside, climbing up a hill, and setting up on the grass with a wonderful view, we had a nasty surprise: On opening the package of food, we discovered garbage and scraps instead of the wonderful sausage and cheese we thought we had bought. A horrid experience that is, for me at least, now one of the highlights of the trip. Rosy remembrance indeed.

So what does this mean to the designer? Design for memory. Exploit it. What is the most important part of an experience? Psychologists emphasize what they call the primacy and recency effects, with recency being the most important.

March + April 2009

As is true with all psychological generalizations, people vary. There is solid experimental evidence to defend the general proposition that the positive outweighs the negative, but not always. In the case of the drive through Spain, my wife vehemently objected to my rosy remembrance. “I totally disagree with you,” she wrote in the margins of the manuscript. “You need to explain how a normal person could have a fond feeling for such a negative memory. I would never wish to repeat that experience!” True, my fond memory is of the total

In other words, what is most important? The ending. What is most important after that? The start. So make sure the beginning and the end are wonderful. Make sure there are reminders of the good parts of the experience: Photographs, mementos, trinkets. Make sure the experience delights, whether it be the simple unfolding of a car’s cup holder or the band serenading departing cruise-ship customers. Accentuate the positive and it will overwhelm the negative.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Don Norman wears many hats, including cofounder of the Nielsen Norman group, professor at Northwestern University, and author. His latest book is The Design of Future Things. He lives at jnd.org.

DOI: 10.1145/1487632.1487638
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