separate items of information in mind (in what is termed “working memory,” which is where information currently being used is temporarily held). Recently, Cowan has suggested that this number might be as low as four items [ 3]. Working memory, being so limited, is very vulnerable to interruptions. When an email interrupts an ongoing task, the person focuses his or her attentional resources in an either “ alternating” or “simultaneous” manner to the email. These modes of operation are far less effective than focused attention. Just how aware are email users of the price they are paying?

When we asked people around the world about their experi-

ences of email, the findings were revealing: a worrying mismatch between what we had seen happens (study one) and what users are aware of (study two) [ 4]. We concluded that while users believe themselves to be in control of their email, they appear to be in its thrall—mesmerized by the idea of incoming emails awaiting perusal.

We developed a typology of orientations to email [ 5]. Three dimensions emerged: relaxed, driven, and stressed. Those individuals with the orientation that we labeled driven also appear to have low self-esteem. In other words, those who suffer from lower self-esteem are impelled to engage with their email more than those individuals who have

higher self-esteem. Those with a stressed orientation find email more distracting than other forms of asynchronous communication such as letters or instant messaging, for example. This makes sense if we accept that the positive side of email is that we are in semi-continuous contact with other people, often like-minded, often geographically disparate. We are communicating. Now, human beings as a species need to communicate to survive, but, even so, communication is more important to some than to others. Those with low self-esteem often define themselves in terms of their acceptance by others; they desperately need the communication fix. Those with higher self-

[ 3] Cowan, N. “The
magical number 4 in
short-term memory:
A reconsideration of
mental storage capac-
ity.” Behavioral and
Brain Sciences 24, no. 1
(2001): 87-114.

[ 4] Renaud, K.V., M. Hair, and J. Ramsay. “You’ve got email. Shall I deal with it now?” International Journal of Human-computer Interaction 21, no. 3 (2006): 313-332.

[ 5] Hair, M., K. V. Renaud, and J. Ramsay. “The Influence of Self-esteem and Locus of Control on Perceived Email-related Stress.” Computers in Human Behaviour 23 no. 6 (2007): 2791-2803.