bazaar of differing agendas and approaches.” He suggested traditional “a priori” approaches will be bested by “self-correcting systems of selfish agents [ 10].”

[ 10] Raymond, Eric, “The Cathedral and the Bazaar,” v3.0, 2000, available at http://www.catb.org/~esr/ writings/cathedral-bazaar/ cathedral-bazaar/ cathedral-bazaar.ps

Commercial
Proprietary
Fewer paid workers
Heavily managed
Hierarchical
Serial processes
Longer development cycles

Free licenses

Open source

More volunteers

Loosely coupled

Distributed peer review Massively parallel debugging More frequent releases

Adapted from Eric Raymond

[ 11] Kelley, Kevin. Out of Control: The Ne w Biology of Machines, Social Systems, and the Economic World. New York: Addison Wesley, 1994.

The Rise of Service Design

The shift from industrial age to information age mirrors, in part, a shift from manufacturing economy to service economy. In the new economy, as former Wired editor Kevin Kelley put it, “commercial products are best treated as though they were services. It’s not what you sell a customer, it’s what you do for them. It’s not what something is, it’s what it is connected to, what it does. Flows become more important than resources. Behavior counts [ 11].”

Early on, Shelley Evenson saw the importance of service design, and she has led U.S. designers in developing the field. She has provided a framework contrasting traditional business-plan-ning methods with service-design methods. Her framework parallels the larger change in ethos we’ve been discussing.

be seen easily in the design of software systems and service systems, where many artifacts, touch points, and subsystems must be coordinated in a community of cooperating systems. For example, “Web-based services” or “integrated systems of hardware, software, and networked applications” require development and management teams with many specialties.

The work of an individual designer on an individual artifact has often been characterized as “hand-craft.” In contrast, Paul Pangaro and I have proposed “service-craft” to describe “the design, management, and ongoing development of service systems.” Design practice in a hand-craft context differs markedly from design practice in a service-craft context. Having assembled a team, care must be taken to negotiate goals, set expectations, define processes, and communicate project status and changes in direction. Care must also be taken to create opportunities for new language to emerge and to create capacity for coevolution between service and participants.

Subject Participant(s) Thinking Language Process Nature of work Key skills Construction

Hand-craft Things Individual Intuitive Idiosyncratic Implicit Concrete Drawing Direct

Service-craft Behaviors Team Reasoned Shared Explicit Abstracted Modeling

Mediated Adapted from Dubberly and Pangaro

September + October 2008

[ 12] Evenson, Shelley. “Experience strategy: product/service systems,” presentation, Detroit, 2006.

Era Focus Growth Method Delivery

Product
Planned
Find the right strategy
Top-down
Sequential
Internal

Service
Emergent
Understand customers
Organic
Parallel
Co-produced
Adapted from Shelley Evenson [ 12]

We also noted that “hand-craft has not gone away, nor is service-craft divorced from hand-craft. Hand-craft plays a role in service-craft (just as in developing software applications, coding remains a form of handcraft). While service-craft focuses on behavior, it supports behavior with artifacts. While service-craft requires teams, teams rely on individuals. Service-craft does not replace hand-craft; rather, service-craft extends or builds another layer upon hand-craft [ 13].”

interactions

Typically, responsibility for designing individual artifacts rests pretty much with one individual, but systems design almost by definition requires teams of people (often including many specialties of design). The need for teams of designers can

Characterizing Services

Robert Lusch wrote about changes in marketing, describing a service-dominant logic in which