Study of Technocultural Transformations,” Ph.D. dissertation, Simon Fraser University, and http://thinkubator.ccsp.sfu.ca/ Dynabook/, which provides many links to relevant sources. A good single source on the Xerox Star is Johnson, J., Roberts, T.L., Verplank, W., Smith, D.C., Irby, C.H., Beard, M., and Mackey, K. (1989), IEEE Computer 22( 9). Case Study D in Baecker and Buxton (1987) lists almost 40 other sources. A good journalistic account of the development of the Apple Macintosh is Levy, S. (1994), Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer that Changed Everything, Penguin Books. 118 stories about the development of the Macintosh and the people who created it are at http://www. folklore.org/index.py.

PART FIVE: GRAPHIC DESIGN AND INDUSTRIAL DESIGN IN INTERACTION DESIGN To my knowledge, Aaron Marcus is the first graphic designer to commit himself to a career in interaction design. A pioneering early article applying graphic design expertise to the design of a page layout system is Marcus, A. (1971), “A Prototype Computerized Page-Design System,” Visible Language V( 3), Summer 1971. Aaron began teaching tutorials on the subject in 1980 and established the design firm Aaron Marcus and Associates in 1982. Good interviews with Aaron are found at http://www.informationdesign.org/special/marcus_interview. php and http://www.amanda.com/resources/webword/ webword_marcus.html. An excellent history of Apple covering the development of the Apple II is Malone, M.S. (1999), Infinite Loop: How Apple, the World’s Most Insanely Great Computer Company, Went Insane, Currency Doubleday. Pages 122-123 discuss the roles of industrial designer Jerry Manock in developing the case for the Apple II and art director Rob Janov in developing a new Apple logo. See also http://apple2history.org/. Levy (1984), Chapter 6, discusses the roles of Manock and graphic designer Susan Hare in developing the Macintosh. Interesting debates involving Steve Jobs and key designers and developers about whether the Mac should be more like a Beetle, a Ferrari, a Porsche, or a Cuisinart are documented in http://www.folklore.org/StoryView. py?project=Macintosh&story=More_Like_A_Porsche.txt. Beginning with work on statistical graphics in the mid-’70s, Edward Tufte has emerged as the preeminent information designer, setting standards for elegant design tailored to cognitive tasks such as understanding causality, comparison, and the effects of multiple variables on complex phenomena. A thoughtful and comprehensive interview with Tufte is Zachary, M. and Thrall, C. (2004), “An Interview with Edward Tufte,” Technical Communication 13( 4). See http://www.edwardtufte. com/tufte/ for information about his four beautiful books, including the particularly influential first book, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, 1983, 2001, Graphics Press.

py?project=Macintosh&story=Do_It.txt&sortOrder=Sort% 20 by%20Date&detail=medium&search=user%20testing. Arguably the most influential industrial research group to develop principles of user-centered, iterative design was IBM Yorktown Heights. Lessons learned were summarized in Gould, J. and Lewis, C. (1985), “Designing for Usability: Design Principles and What Designers Think,” Communications of the ACM 28( 3). See also Gould, J. (1988), “How to Design Usable Systems,” Chapter 35 of Helander, M. (Ed.), Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction, North-Holland. Another important group was at DEC, see for example Whiteside, J., Bennett, J., and Holtzblatt, K. (1988), “Usability Engineering: Our Experience and Evolution,” Chapter 36 of Helander. An excellent overview of the history and practice of usability engineering is Butler, K.A. (1996), “Usability Engineering Turns 10,” interactions, Jan. 1996. A seminal vision of an applied information-processing psychology of human-computer interfaces that could reduce the need for usability testing is Card., S.K., Moran, T.P., and Newell, A. (1983), The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction, Erlbaum.

PART SEVEN: UNDERSTANDING WORKPLACE CONTEXT An excellent review of sociotechnical design, including its origins at the Tavistock Institute founded in London in 1946 and its interactions with developments in Scandinavia, is Mumford, E. (2006), “The Story of Socio-technical Design: Reflections on its Successes, Failures, and Potential,” Information Systems Journal 16. The Scandinavian approach to the design of computer-based systems is treated in depth in Floyd, C., Mehl, W.-M., Reisin, F.-M., Schmidt, G., and Wolf, G. (1989). “Out of Scandinavia: Alternative Approaches to Software Design and System Development,” Human-Computer Interaction 4( 4). See also Ehn, P. (1988), Work-oriented Design of Computer Artifacts, Lawrence Erlbaum, esp. Chapter 11. Hiltzig (1999), Chapter 14, describes how designers of the Gypsy word processor grounded their work in interviews with editors at the Ginn publishing subsidiary of Xerox. Chapter 21 discusses how the Xerox Systems Science Lab based new office system designs on an understanding of how people do their work. A landmark achievement was the Ph.D. dissertation Suchman, L. (1987), Plans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human-Machine Communication, Cambridge University Press, which applied ethnomethodological methods to the analysis of an expert help system.

PART SIX: USABILITY TESTING The extensive usability testing in Star development is described in Bewley, W., Roberts, T., Schroit, D., and Verplank, W. (1983), “Human Factors Testing in the Design of Xerox’s 8010 ‘Star’ Office Workstation,” Proc. CHI ’83, 72-77. User testing of the Lisa conducted by Larry Tesler is described in Levy (1994) Chapter 4, and also in http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.

PART EIGHT: TOWARDS A RICHER UNDERSTANDING OF THE HISTORY OF HCI For the Welcome Trust, see http://www.ucl.ac.uk/histmed/. The Computer History Museum’s website may be found at http://www.digibarn.com/. Most interesting is the Digibarn Computer Museum, with a website at http://www.digibarn. com/, that describes its “nonmuseum approach” to creating “a kind of ‘memory palace’ for the nerd-inclined [to] help … piece together the amazing story of the invention of personal computing and Cyberspace.”

March + April 2008