troduced, the demand for the game so outstripped the capacity that had been built into the game that subscriptions had to be closed off for months while the code that distributed the game was rewritten.

changing chip architectures

Scaling over a set of machines is a distributed computing problem, and the game and virtual-world programming culture has had little experience with this set of problems. This is hardly the only place where scaling requires the game programmer to learn a new set of skills. A change in the trend of chip design also means these programmers must learn skills they have never had to exercise before.

With the possible exception of the highest end of scientific computing, no other kind of software has ridden the advances of Moore’s Law as aggressively as game or virtual-world programs. As chips have gotten faster, games and virtual worlds have become more realistic, more complex, and more immersive. Serious gameplayers invest in the very best equipment that they can obtain, and then use techniques such as overclocking to push even more performance out of those systems.

Now, however, chip designers have decided to exploit Moore’s Law in a different way. Rather than increasing the speed of a chip, they are adding multiple cores to a chip running at the same (or sometimes slower) clock speed. There are many good reasons for this, from simplified design to lower power consumption and heat production, but it means that the performance of a single program will not automatically increase when you run the program on a new chip. Overall performance of a group of programs may increase (since they can all run in parallel) but not the single program (unless it can be broken into multiple, cooperating threads). Games are written as single-threaded programs, however.

In fact, games and virtual worlds (and especially the server side of these programs) should be perfect vehicles to show the performance gains possible with multicore chips and groups of cooperating servers. Games and virtual worlds are embarrassingly parallel, in that most of what goes on in them is independent of the other things that

By backing the
data in a persistent
fashion rather than
keeping it in main
memory, we gain
some inherent
reliability that has
not been exhibited
by games or worlds
in the past.

are happening. Of the hundreds of thousands of players who are active in World of Warcraft at any one time, only a very small number will be interacting with any particular player. The same is true in Second Life and nearly all large-scale games or worlds.

The problem is that the culture that has grown up around games and virtual worlds is not one that understands or is overly familiar with the programming techniques that are required to exploit the parallelism inherent in these systems. These are people who grew up on a single (PC) machine, running a single thread. Asking them to master the in-tricacies of concurrent programming or distributed systems takes them away from their concentration on the game or world experience itself. Even when they have the desire, they don’t have the time or the experience to exploit these new technologies.

Project Darkstar

It is for these reasons that we started Project Darkstar ( http://www.pro-jectdarkstar.com), a research effort attempting to build a server-side infrastructure that will exploit the multithreaded, multicore chips being produced and scaled over a large group of machines while presenting the programmer with the illusion that he or she is developing in a single-threaded, single-machine environment. Hiding threading and distribution is, in the general case, probably not a good idea (see http://research.sun.com/ techrep/1994/ abstract- 29.ht ml for a full argument). Game and world servers tend to follow a very restricted programming model, however, in which we believe we can hide both concurrency and distribution.

The model is a simple event-based one in which input from the client is received by the server, which then sets off a task in response to that event. These tasks can change the state of the world (by moving a player, changing the state of an object, or the like) and initiate communication. The communication can be to a single client or to a group of clients that are all subscribed to the same communication channel.

We chose this model largely because this is the way most game and virtual-world servers are already structured. The challenge was then to keep this