and hard drives; flash is interesting because it falls in a sweet spot between those two components for both cost and performance in that flash is significantly cheaper and denser than DRAM and significantly faster than disk. Flash can accordingly augment the system to form a new tier in the storage hierarchy—perhaps the most significant new tier since the introduction of the disk drive with RAMAC in 1956.

Properties of flash

Flash has two distinct categories: NAND and NOR—designations that refer to the way the flash cells are arranged. NOR flash allows for random access and is best suited for random access memory, while NAND must be treated as blocks and is ideal for persistent storage. The rest of this article examines only NAND flash, the cheaper and more common variety, of which again there are two types: single-level cell (SLC) and multilevel cell (MLC). SLC stores a single binary value in each memory cell. The binary value is distinguished by two threshold voltages. MLC supports four or, recently, eight distinct values per memory cell corresponding to two or three bits of storage. Because of its improved longevity and performance, the conventional wisdom is that SLC is best suited for enterprise (that is, not consumer-grade) solutions, so our focus here is on SLC flash, its cost, power dissipation, performance, and longevity as compared with DRAM and disk drives (see Figure 1).

The cost per unit storage is what has brought flash to the forefront in recent years (see Figure 2). Earlier this decade, flash costs were on par with those of DRAM; now, flash devices are much less expensive: $10–$35 per GB for an SLC flash device compared with around $100 per GB for DRAM. The cost trend appears to be continuing to widen the gap between flash and DRAM. Disk drives are still much cheaper than flash, weighing in at less than $1 per GB for 7,200RPM drives and in the neighborhood of $3 per GB for 15,000RPM drives.

The other exciting attribute of flash is its low power consumption. As the cost of power and the impetus toward green computing rise, so does the attractiveness of lower-power solutions.

While completely accurate comparisons between flash, DRAM, and hard drives are difficult because of differences in capacity and interfaces, it’s fair to say that flash consumes significantly less power than those other system components, especially on a per-giga-byte basis. The accompanying table records the power consumption for some typical components to provide a broad sense for each type of device.

The performance of flash is a bit unusual in that it’s highly asymmetric, posing a challenge for using it in a storage system. A block of flash must be erased before it can be written, which takes on the order of 1– 2 ms for a block, and writing to erased flash requires around 200–300 µs. For this reason flash devices try to maintain a pool of previously erased blocks so that the latency of a write is just that of the program operation. Read operations are much faster: approximately 25 µs for 4k. By comparison, raw DRAM is even faster, able to perform reads and writes in much less than a microsecond. Disk-drive latency depends on the rotational speed of the drive: on average 4. 2 ms for 7,200RPM, 3 ms for 10,000RPM, and 2 ms for 15,000RPM. Adding in the seek time bumps these latencies up an additional 3– 10 ms depending on the quality of the mechanical components.

SLC flash is typically rated to sustain one million program/erase cycles per block. As flash cells are stressed, they lose their ability to record and retain values. Because of the limited lifetime, flash devices must take care to ensure

that cells are stressed uniformly so that “hot” cells don’t cause premature device failure, a technique known as wear-leveling. Just as disk drives keep a pool of spare blocks for bad-block remapping, flash devices typically present themselves to the operating system as significantly smaller than the amount of raw flash to maintain a reserve of spare blocks (and pre-erased blocks to improve write performance). Most flash devices are also capable of estimating their own remaining lifetimes so systems can anticipate failure and take prophylactic action.

 

today’s Storage hierarchy Whether over a network or for local access, primary storage can be succinctly summarized as a head unit containing CPUs and DRAM attached to drives either in storage arrays or JBODs (just a bunch of disks). The disks comprise the primary repository for data— typical modern data sets range from a few hundred gigabytes up to a petabyte or more—while DRAM acts as a very fast cache. Clients communicate via read and write operations. Read operations are always synchronous in that the client is blocked until the operation is serviced, whereas write operations may be either synchronous or asynchronous depending on the application. For example, video streams may write data blocks asynchronously and verify only at the end of the stream that all data has been quiesced; databases, however, use synchronous usually writes to ensure that every transaction has been

 

figure 1: DRam, 15K RPm drives and SSD: Price and performance.

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