human beings possess a deeply rooted response to motion, recognizing innately in it a quality of “being alive” provoking a significantly deeper and emotional response from users.

This article presents a framework for this emerging field of kinetic interaction design. We discuss previous work that provides the foundation of motion design in interaction as well as analyze what can be learned and applied from relevant theories and examples in robotics, kinetic art, and architectural systems. We also discuss some of the current directions in kinetic interface designs and conclude by proposing principles that can be applied in the future design of such interfaces and forms. Described as “one of the 20th century art’s great unknowns,” the language of movement has been an underutilized and little-examined means of communication, and the use of motion in human computer interfaces is still in its infancy. This article offers a broader perspective of the possibilities of kinetic interaction design, taking advantage of motion as a medium for creating user interactions befitting the 21st century.

 

KINETIC PRECEDENTS: LEARNING FROM AUTOMATA, KINETIC ART, AND ROBOTS

Human beings have a rich history of designing and utilizing kinetic forms in art, automata, and robotics, from which we can draw inspiration and analysis of the possibilities for kinetic interaction design. In particular, the 17th century marked a significant increase in the phenomena of human or animal automatons, that is, self-moving machines. One of the most famous of these was a mechanical duck by Jacques de Vaucanson. The duck was described as a marvel that “drinks, eats, quacks, splashes about on the water, and digests his food like a living duck.” Another similarly spectacular automaton from this period was The Writer by Pierre Jacquet-Droz: with internal clockwork mechanics, this life-size figure of a boy could write any message up to 40 letters. The interesting characteristic of these early automata was that they were not utilitarian in nature, but were constructed as highly technological decorations to be observed and enjoyed. They reflected the early human fascination with simulating human characteristics in machines and in particular with our ability for self-initiated motion.

In the early 20th century Italian Futurists explored motion as a primary means of artistic expression, looking at motion as a “concept.” While the Futurists did not create mechanical kinetic devices, they were the first to investigate the concept of motion and speed as a plastic expressive value and the first to create an artistic vocabulary based on motion. Paintings such as Gia-

como Balla’s Speed and Rotation (see Figure 1a), a Futurist work from 1913, represent “an expression of time and space through the abstract presentation of movement.”

The 1920s produced the launch of what is considered “kinetic art,” works that featured real physical movement in three-dimensional space. Artists such as Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, Alexander Calder, and Nicholas Takis experimented with creating sculptures whose parts were moved by air currents, magnetism, electromechanical actuators, or spectators themselves. The aim of these kinetic artists was to make movement a central part of the art piece, where motion itself presented artistic and aesthetic value to the viewer (see Figure 1b). These early kinetic works show the strong aesthetic value of physical motion. These aesthetics are being explored today by such artists as Sachiko Kodama, who creates organic kinetic sculptures based not on physical objects but on magnetically actuated fluids; her work is described in an article in this issue.

Moving into contemporary times, the field of social robotics and robotic art offers a rich motion vocabulary both in the functional and perceptual areas. While some projects, such as the robotic dog Aibo, have attempted to simulate animal or human forms and movements, others attempted to design an independent and unique motion vocabulary to communicate with the user. For example, OuterSpace [ 6] presents a reactive robotic creature resembling an insect antenna that is flexible enough to explore the environment (see Figure 1c). Outerspace appears as a playful, curious creature exploring the surrounding space looking for light, motion, and contact. As Outerspace engages with an observer, its motion patterns, based on body language and human gesture, change in response to stimulus and contact, engaging the observer in a social interaction. Although abstracted, Outerspace’s organic motion repertoire allows the user to perceive a sense of intelligence in the creature, changing the nature of the interaction.

These examples from early automata to kinetic art to social robotic creatures demonstrate how reactive kinetic motion designed to be mimetic of a living organism has the power to engage us, fascinate us, and create an interactive conversation with an otherwise disembodied object. It is our innate ability as human beings to be engaged by the lifelike qualities of motion, allowing us to employ the movement of objects as a tool for communication and engagement, and allowing inanimate objects to become partners in our interactions.

 

KINETIC DESIGN FOR HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION The examples in robotics and kinetic art have demonstrated how motion in a self-actuated entity